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Overview
The Indonesian presidential system of government is based on the 1945 constitution. The president, elected for five years, is the head of the state, head of the government and the chief of the armed forces. He or she also has the power to pass decrees that can serve as law in emergency situations. Beginning in 2001, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) has undertaken a staged revision of the 1945 constitution in order to reform its many weaknesses and to curb the potential for presidential excess.
Listing of current Indonesian cabinet members
Indonesia's Presidents
Sukarno
(1901-1970; ruled 1945-1966)
Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia, is considered the "father of the country" by many Indonesians. He founded an independence movement in 1927, and was subsequently repeatedly jailed and exiled by the Dutch. His anti-colonial activities continued throughout World War II, and when the war ended he and fellow nationalist leader Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesia's independence. The independence struggle against the Dutch finally ended in 1949, with Sukarno as president of the new nation. Throughout the 1950s, Sukarno consolidated the disparate islands that make up Indonesia. In 1956, impatient with party politics, he established a "guided democracy," with diverse political parties represented in a constituent assembly, where a special group of regional representatives are appointed by the president, but he encountered many factional and regional problems. As a result, in 1959 he dissolved parliament and assumed full dictatorial powers; four years later he declared himself "president for life." Western powers were antagonized by Sukarno's actions to annex Dutch New Guinea in 1962-63, and to increase ties with Communist China in the 1960s (in addition to including Communists within his government). He strongly opposed the creation of the Federation of Malaysia, withdrawing from the UN in 1965 in protest. Later that year, an attempted Communist coup led to Sukarno's fall from power. In response to the attempted coup, General Suharto, a military leader, took over the government, relieving Sukarno of his presidency. The following year he lost his title of "president for life," and was kept under house arrest until his death four years later.
Suharto
(1921- ; ruled 1966-1998)
Suharto entered the political scene when he was a lieutenant-general in the Army Strategic Reserve. He took power during the 1965 failed coup and purged the Communists. During his reign, Suharto was dubbed "the smiling general," but effectively suppressed any opposition against him. Suharto's policies, though undemocratic, brought a measure of prosperity to Indonesia. His 'New Order' regime was remarkably stable from 1976 until 1988. After this time, the regime was undermined by the increasing wealth and corruption of Suharto's children, and overly harsh military responses to renewed separatism. The corruption and nepotism of the economy made Indonesia particularly susceptible to the Asian financial crisis of 1997. In the aftermath of the crisis, amid riots and widespread protests against his failure to resolve the crisis, Suharto stepped down. Despite the many calls for a trial against Suharto on the charges of corruption (and possibly human rights abuses), he lives in a guarded house in Jakarta, protected from legal proceedings by his poor health.
B.J. Habibie
(1936 - ; ruled 1998-1999)
Suharto's vice-president and a Muslim leader, Habibie took over the leadership of Indonesia when Suharto stepped down, in a constitutionally sanctioned move. Habibie was trained as an aeronautical engineer in Germany. Under Suharto, he worked as the minister of research and technology before his selection for the vice-presidency only a year before Suharto's resignation. During his brief tenure, Habibie attempted to win over the opposition by dismissing the most obvious beneficiaries of Suharto's nepotism. Habibie's time was marred, however, by the 1999 crisis in East Timor and the resulting violence. This crisis brought Indonesian-Australian relations to their lowest point when Australia led the multinational peacekeeping forces that entered East Timor in September 1999 to quell the fighting. In the eyes of many Indonesians, Habibie's rule remained associated with Suharto's undemocratic rule, and he was defeated in the 1999 election that brought Wahid and Megawati to power.
Abdurrahman Wahid
(1940 - ; ruled 1999-2001)
A moderate Muslim cleric, Wahid (nicknamed Gus Dur) became well known as the leader of Nahdlatul Ulama, a mainstream Muslim organization with a membership of over 30 million. Despite being almost blind and having suffered two strokes, Wahid ran for president in 1999. The election proved extremely close, with the popular daughter of Sukarno, Megawati Sukarnoputri, running neck-and-neck with Wahid. Wahid won the presidency as a compromise candidate between extreme Muslims, and secular nationalists (such as Megawati). Observers have also suggested that many in the predominantly Muslim country were unprepared to see a woman take over the presidency. Because of this thin margin of victory and tenuous coalition of backers, Wahid suffered from a lack of perceived legitimacy throughout his brief rule, frequently struggling with parliament. His leadership was considered by many to be rudderless and capricious, marked by ad-hoc decisions. In the final months of his presidency, he was increasingly preoccupied by a power struggle with his vice president, Megawati. Indonesians joked that Sukarno's rule had been the time of "Old Order," Suharto's, "New Order," Habibie's, "No Order," and Wahid's, "Out of Order." Wahid was unable to deal effectively with both the economic problems that followed the Asian financial crisis, and the separatist movements in Aceh and West Papua (Irian Jaya). Two financial scandals involving improper use of aid money were the immediate cause of his impeachment and removal in July 2001. During the crisis, Wahid attempted to declare a state of emergency, but the military leaders ignored this call.
Megawati Sukarnoputri
(1947- ; rules 2001- )
As the daughter of Sukarno, Megawati's close involvement with politics came as no surprise. In 1987, as a self-described "former housewife," she joined the Indonesian Democracy Party (PDI), and she and her husband won seats in the House of Representatives. She rose to the leadership of the PDI in 1993. In the process, she developed a great popular following, based on her background and her reputation for opposing corruption. Suharto tried to thwart her career in 1996 by arranging her forced removal from the PDI leadership, but this strategy backfired - riots raged in Jakarta, and Megawati's popularity increased. Banned from the 1997 election, she formed her own party, PDI-P (Indonesian Democracy Party of Struggle). In the 1999 presidential election, Megawati came extremely close to victory, but was politically outmaneuvered by Wahid. Nonetheless, she was elected vice-president by the legislature, and came to be considered a likely candidate for the next presidency, as Wahid's rule grew increasingly precarious. In August 2000, Wahid transferred the day-to-day administration of the government to Megawati. On July 24, 2001, after Wahid's declared "state of emergency" failed and he stepped down, she took over as president. Despite her popularity, Megawati has been criticized by some for a lack of political clarity and decisiveness, her close ties with the military, and a lack of experience in government. Some have also questioned her leadership capabilities. Finally, there is some concern that because of her nationalist leanings, she would ruthlessly crush any separatist movements rather than negotiating, although thus far this fear has not been realized. Concerns that she would anger Muslims with her secular leanings were somewhat assuaged by the choice of Hamza Haz, a prominent Muslim leader, as her vice-president. She has been praised by some commentators for political shrewdness, and her career and background may provide her with the political clout she needs to overcome the many problems facing Indonesia.
The Current President
The first female President of Indonesia, 54 year-old Megawati Sukarnoputri came to the presidency with a tremendous popular mandate. Over the past few decades, she has built a reputation as the "voice of the people," based on the legacy of her father, Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president, and her resistance to the Suharto dictatorship.
Born in 1947, Megawati is Sukarno's second child. Her full given name is Dyah Permata Megawati Setiawati Sukarnoputri, meaning "lady of the cloud." She grew up in the presidential palace until the age of 19, when her father was deposed by Suharto. She attended university but never completed her degree. In 1973, she married her third husband, Taufik Kiemas, a political activist turned businessman who had spent three years in prison for his ardent support of Sukarno.
Megawati was a self-styled housewife, and raised three children before she entered politics in 1987. At that time, she was asked to join the Indonesian Democracy Party (PDI), one of the few opposition parties permitted under Suharto. She and her husband both won seats in the legislature. By 1993, she had attained the leadership of the PDI, and despite her lack of experience in the national arena, she quickly attracted widespread grassroots support. Her reputation was bolstered by the legacy of her father, who remained a national hero in the eyes of many Indonesians. She portrayed herself as a politician free from corruption and possessing a personal moral authority.
Megawati's political rise was accelerated in 1996 when then-President Suharto, believing her to be a threat, engineered her forced removal from the PDI leadership and attacked her party's headquarters killing at least five people. The attempt to dispose of Megawati backfired on Suharto, as the event catapulted Megawati into the limelight as a symbol of resistance to Suharto's regime and provoked major riots in Jakarta. Although PDI was banned from the general elections of May 1997, Megawati went on to create a new party, PDI-Perjuangan, meaning "Struggle."
In the country's first democratic election of 1999, Megawati was considered by many to be the candidate most likely to become president. She campaigned on a ticket of anti-corruption and unity and, despite her elite background, managed to symbolize an end to KKN - Korupsi, Kolusi, Nepotisme (Corruption, Collusion and Nepotism). Her party was supported across the religious spectrum and in military circles. She won 33% of the vote, more than any other competitor. But her refusal to assemble a coalition to attain majority in the legislature led to her losing the presidency to Abdurahman Wahid.
Wahid, however, was a longtime friend of Megawati's and the two were known to have referred to each other as brother and sister. In a move seen as a political compromise, she was sworn in as Wahid's Vice-President the day after he was elected President. Her election to the Vice-Presidency was expected to quell the violence that broke out among her supporters when she failed to gain the presidency.
As Vice-President, Megawati was considered by many to be a "President in Waiting". She surrounded herself with top advisors but was criticized for not participating in decision-making. In particular, she was largely unable to resolve the conflict between Muslims and Christians in Maluku, the main task given to her by Wahid.
As Indonesians became disillusioned with Wahid's administration, Megawati grew increasingly frustrated with his weakening presidency and their relationship deteriorated. Rumors also circulated that Wahid had made derisive remarks about the Vice-President. In a move to offer Megawati an olive branch, Wahid transferred responsibility for day-to-day technical aspects of the government to her in August 2000.
Megawati took a backseat while others called for Wahid's impeachment, keeping her distance from Wahid. She remained quiet when he sacked key ministers without her consultation and while he made continual threats to impose a state of emergency. When his impeachment became a possibility, Megawati's political rivalry with Wahid was revived. On July 23, 2001, the People's Consultative Assembly voted to impeach President Wahid and officially elected Megawati Indonesia's new President. She had won the overwhelming support of the 700-member Assembly, with help from a coalition of Golkar and the nationalist faction in the military.
Megawati took the reins of power with the economy faltering and the nation beset with religious and separatist violence and tensions. Many Indonesians hoped that Megawati's presidency would bring a degree of stability after the chaotic times under Wahid. However, many observers feared that her close military ties and her essentially conservative positions could result in a government clampdown and the revocation of recently won liberties. Analysts expected her to allow the military more leeway to crush separatist movements; in any event her administration was not expected to call the military to account for past abuses.
Since her assumption of power, widespread decentralization of government power to Indonesia's provinces has continued. However, a strong military presence remains in many conflict regions including Aceh, West Papua, and Maluku. Megawati continues to face many challenges in terms of a struggling economy, ongoing separatist conflicts, the implementation of decentralization, endemic corruption, poverty, and other threats to human security. It remains to be seen how successful she will be in addressing these issues.
For further information on Megawati, please see the Resources Section.
Legislative Branch
The legislative branch of the Indonesian government is comprised of two assemblies - The House of People's Representatives (DPR), and The People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). DPR is composed of 500 representatives, 462 of which are elected by popular vote, while 38 are appointed by the military. The military is expected to end its political role by 2004, although decrees by the MPR suggest that it may retain its political power through 2009.
Members of the House serve five-year terms. The next election is scheduled for June 2004. MPR includes the DPR and 200 appointed representatives - 135 regional representatives and 65 representing societal groups. It meets every five years to elect the president and vice-president and to approve the general outlines of the national policy.
Judicial System
There are three types of law in Indonesia. The general legal system is derived from the Dutch legal system, while Islamic law, known as Shari'a, applies to Muslims throughout Indonesia. In early 2002, the legislature, as part of a special autonomy package, granted the province of Aceh the authority to implement Shari'a law. A third law system, 'Adat' or customary law, is applied mainly in local disputes.
Indonesia's highest court is the Supreme Court. There are also four separate courts under the Supreme Court: civil courts, religious courts, tax administration courts and military courts. Other courts include the High Courts and District Courts. Judges are appointed by the central government, although the courts are independent from the executive and legislative branches of government. There are no juries.
Political Parties
During the New Order government of Suharto, Golkar was the predominant political organization, supported by the government and the military. Beginning in 1973, only two opposition parties were permitted; the Indonesian Democracy Party (PDI) and the Development Unity Party (PPP). With the fall of Suharto, Golkar lost its privileged position. However, as evidenced by its strong position after the 1999 general elections, it still retained considerable power. Other parties that emerged from the 1999 elections with significant political influence included PDI-P, led by Megawati, the PPP, led by Hamzah Haz, the National Awakening Party (PKB), led by Abdurrahman Wahid, and to a lesser degree, the National Mandate Party (PAN), led by Amien Rais.
For more information, see the Economist Intelligence Unity, Political Forces
The leadership of the current government is composed of Megawati's nationalist-leaning PDI-P party and the Islamic party, PPP, of her vice president, Hamzah Haz. After a promising start, the coalition has suffered several rifts, as conflicts between the two leaders and conflicting party agendas have come to the fore.
For more information, see Asia Times, Indonesia pays the price for compromise
The following is a listing of the major political parties and their chairs:
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Main Political Parties
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Party Chair
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Indonesia Democracy Party-Struggle (PDI-P)
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Megawati Sukarnoputri
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Golkar
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Akbar Tanjung
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National Awakening Party (PKB)
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Abdurrahman Wahid
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National Mandate Party (PAN)
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Amien Rais
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Crescent Moon and Star Party (PBB)
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Yusril Ihza Mahendra
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Development Unity Party (PPP) (Federation of Islamic parties)
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Hamzah Haz
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Indonesia Democracy Party (PDI) (Federation of former nationalist and Christian parties)
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Budi Hardjono
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Updated June 2002
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